Voyage to India

[edit] Tragedy off southern Africa

12 of 13 ships that were part of Cabral's fleet are depicted. Many were lost, as can be seen in this drawing from Memória das Armadas, c.1568

The fleet resumed its voyage on either 2^[66] or 3^[64] May 1500 and sailed along the east coast of South America. Cabral became convinced that he had found an entire continent, rather than an island.^[67] Around 5 May, the fleet veered eastwards towards Africa.^[67] On 23^[67] or 24^[63] May they encountered a storm in the South Atlantic's high-pressure zone, resulting in the loss of four ships. The exact location of disaster is unknown—speculations range from near the Cape of Good Hope at the southern tip of the African continent^[67] to "within sight of the South American coast".^[68] Three naus and a caravel commanded by Bartolomeu Dias—the first European to reach the Cape of Good Hope in 1488—foundered, and 380 men were lost.^[69]
The remaining vessels, hindered by rough weather and damaged rigging, were separated. One ship that had been separated, commanded by Diogo Dias, wandered onward alone,^[70] and the other six ships were able to regroup. They gathered into two formations consisting of three ships each, and Cabral's group sailed east, past the Cape of Good Hope. Fixing their position and sighting land, they turned north and landed somewhere in the Primeiras and Segundas Archipelago, off East Africa and north of Sofala.^[70][71] The main fleet remained near Sofala ten days undergoing repairs.^[70][72] The expedition then went north, and on 26 May reached Kilwa Kisiwani, where Cabral made an unsuccessful attempt to negotiate a treaty with its king.^[73]
From Kilwa Kisiwani, the fleet departed to Malindi, which was reached on 2 August. Cabral met with its king, with whom he established friendly relations and exchanged gifts. Pilots were recruited at Malindi for the last leg to India and the fleet set sail. Land was reached at Anjadip, an island frequented by ships to obtain supplies on their way to Calicut. Here the ships were beached, recaulked and painted. Final arrangements were put into place for the encounter with the ruler of Calicut.^[74][75][76]

[edit] Massacre in Calicut

The fleet departed Anjadip and arrived in Calicut on 13 September.^[66][74][76] Cabral successfully negotiated with the Zamorin (the title of the ruler of Calicut) and obtained permission to establish a factory and a warehouse.^[75] In hopes of further improving relations, Cabral dispatched his men on several military missions at the Zamorin's request.^[F] However, on 16^[77] or 17^[78] December, the factory suffered a surprise attack by some 300^[77] (according to other accounts, perhaps as many as several thousand)^[75] Muslim Arabs and Hindu Indians. Despite a desperate defense by crossbowmen, more than 50 Portuguese were killed.^[G][77][79] The remaining defenders retreated to the ships, some by swimming. Thinking that the attack was the result of unauthorized incitement by jealous Arab merchants, Cabral waited 24 hours for an explanation from the ruler of Calicut, but no apology was forthcoming.^[78][79][80]
The Portuguese were outraged by the attack on the factory and the death of their comrades and seized 10 Arab merchant ships at anchor in the harbor. Around 600 of their crews^[79] were killed and the cargoes confiscated before the merchantmen were set afire.^[78][80] Cabral also ordered his ships to bombard Calicut for an entire day in reprisal for the violation of the agreement.^[78][80] The massacre was blamed in part on Portuguese animosity towards Muslims, which had developed over centuries of conflict with the Moors on the Iberian peninsula and in North Africa.^[81] Moreover, the Portuguese were determined to dominate the spice trade and had no intention of allowing competition to flourish. The Arabs also had no desire to allow the Portuguese to break their monopoly on access to spices. The Portuguese had started out by insisting on being given preferential treatment in every aspect of the trade. The letter from King Manuel I brought by Cabral to the ruler of Calicut, which was translated by the ruler's Arab interpreters, sought the exclusion of Arab traders. The Muslim merchants believed that they were about to lose both their trading opportunities and livelihoods,^[82] and attempted to sway the Hindu ruler against the Portuguese. The Portuguese and Arabs were extremely suspicious of each other's every action.^[83]

The nau (carrack) was a type of vessel that was larger than a caravel but smaller than the later galleon. They were used in the voyages of Christopher Columbus, Vasco da Gama and Cabral.^[84]

Historian William Greenlee has argued that the Portuguese realized that "they were few in numbers and that those who would come to India in the future fleets would always be at numerical disavantage; so that this treachery must be punished in a manner so decisive that the Portuguese would be feared and respected in the future. It was their superior artillery which would enable them to accomplish this end." Thus, they created a precedent for European behavior in Asia during the following centuries.^[85]

[edit] Return to Europe

Warnings in reports from Vasco da Gama's voyage to India had prompted King Manuel I to brief Cabral regarding another port to the south of Calicut where he could also trade. This city was Kochi and the fleet set sail, reaching it on 24 December.^[86]. At last, loaded with precious spices, the fleet went to Kannur for further trade before setting out on its return voyage to Portugal on 16 January 1501.^[77][78][86]
The expedition headed for the east coast of Africa. One of the ships became stranded on a sandbar and the vessel began to founder. As there was no space in the other ships, its cargo was lost and Cabral ordered the carrack to be set on fire.^[87][88][89] The fleet then proceeded to the Island of Mozambique (northeast of Sofala), in order to take on provisions and make the ships ready for the rough passage around the Cape of Good Hope.^[90] One caravel was sent to Sofala—another of the expedition's goals. A second caravel, considered the fastest ship in the fleet and captained by Nicolau Coelho, was sent ahead to give the King advance notice of the voyage's success. A third vessel, commanded by Pedro de Ataíde, became separated from the fleet after leaving Mozambique.^[90]
On 22 May, the fleet—now reduced to only two ships—rounded the Cape of Good Hope.^[91] They arrived in Beseguiche (present-day Dakar, located near Cape Verde) on 2 June. There they found not only Nicolau Coelho's caravel but also the nau captained by Diogo Dias—which had been lost for over a year following the disaster in the South Atlantic. The nau had experienced several adventures of its own^[H] and was now in poor condition with only seven sick and malnourished men aboard—one of whom was so weak that he died of happiness upon again seeing his comrades.^[88] Another Portuguese fleet was also found riding at anchor in Beseguiche. After Manuel I had been told of the discovery of present-day Brazil, he sent another and smaller fleet explore it. One of its navigators was Amerigo Vespucci (for whom the Americas would be named), who told Cabral of his exploration, confirming that he had indeed made landfall on an entire continent and not merely an island.^[92]
Nicolau Coelho's caravel departed first from Beseguiche and arrived in Portugal on 23 June 1501.^[93] Cabral stayed behind, waiting for Pedro de Ataíde's missing ship and for the caravel that had been sent to Sofala. Both eventually appeared and Cabral arrived in Portugal on 21 July 1501, with the other vessels coming home during the following days.^[94] In all, two ships returned empty, five were fully loaded and six were lost. Nonetheless, the cargoes carried by the fleet returned up to 800% profit to the Portuguese Crown.^[95] Once sold, the proceeds covered the outlay in equipping the fleet, covered the cost of the vessels which had been lost, and cleared a profit which itself exceeded the total sum of those costs.^[96] "Undeterred by the unprecedented losses which he had sustained", asserts historian James McClymont, when Cabral "reached the East African coast, pressed forward to the accomplishment of the task which had been assigned to him and was able to inspire the surviving officers and men with like courage."^[91] "Few voyages to Brazil and India were so well executed as Cabral's", affirmed historian Bailey Diffie,^[51] which laid down a path leading to the immediate commencement "of a Portuguese seagoing empire from Africa to the far East", and eventually to "a land empire in Brazil".^[66]

[edit] Later years and death

Cabral's tomb in Santarém, Portugal

Upon Cabral's return, King Manuel I began planning another fleet to make the journey to India and to avenge the Portuguese losses in Calicut. Cabral was selected to command this "Revenge Fleet", as it was called. For eight months Cabral made all preparations,^[97] but for reasons which remain uncertain, he was relieved of command.^[98] It had apparently been proposed to give another navigator, Vicente Sodré, independent command over a section of the fleet, and Cabral strongly opposed this.^{[98][99][100][101]} Whether he was dismissed^[100] or requested himself that he be relieved of command,^[99] the result was that when the fleet departed in March 1502, its commander was Vasco da Gama—a maternal nephew of Vicente Sodré—and not Cabral.^{[19][100][101]} It is known that hostility had developed between a faction supporting da Gama and another supporting Cabral. At some point, Cabral left the court permanently.^[97] The king was greatly irritated by the feud, to such an extent that mentioning the matter in his presence could result in banishment, as it did for one of da Gama's supporters.^[102]
Despite the loss of favor with Manuel I,^[98][101] Cabral was able to contract an advantageous marriage in 1503^[102][103] to Dona (Lady) Isabel de Castro, a wealthy noblewoman and descendant of King Dom Fernando I of Portugal.^[102] Her mother was a sister of Afonso de Albuquerque, one of the greatest Portuguese military leaders during the Age of Discovery.^{[12][18][102]} The couple had at least four children: two boys (Fernão Álvares Cabral and António Cabral) and two girls (Catarina de Castro and Guiomar de Castro).^[11] There were two additional daughters named Isabel and Leonor according to other sources, which also say that Guiomar, Isabel and Leonor joined religious orders.^[104] Afonso de Albuquerque attempted to intercede on Cabral's behalf and on 2 December 1514 asked Manuel I to forgive him and allow his return to court, but to no avail.^{[12][102][105]}
Suffering from recurrent fever and a tremor (possibly malaria) since his voyage,^[19] Cabral withdrew to Santarém in 1509. He spent his remaining years there.^[12][101] Only sketchy information is available as to his activities during that time. According to a royal letter dated 17 December 1509, Cabral was party to a dispute over a transaction involving property which belonged to him.^[102][106] Another letter of that same year reported that he was to receive certain privileges for an undisclosed military service.^[15][102] In 1518, or perhaps previously, he was raised from fidalgo to knight in the King's Council and was entitled to a monthly allowance of 2,437 reais.^{[15][102][105]} This was in addition to the annual allowance granted to him in 1497, and still being paid.^[15] Cabral died of unspecified causes, most probably in 1520. He was buried within Santarém's Convento de Graça (today the Asylo de São Antonio) in a side-chapel of the convent's church.^{[19][95][104][105]}